Tuesday, May 14, 2013

Sebi begins repayment process in Sahara case


In the high profile Sahara case involving over Rs 24,000 crore raised through “various illegalities”, market regulator Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) has begun the process of refund to individual investors who have been verified by it.
The money is being refunded only in those cases where SEBI has not found any multiplicity during its verification process. Refund for others will have to wait till the next direction from the Supreme Court, which is likely to hear the case on 17 July.
The refunds are being made from Rs 5,120 crore that has been deposited by the Sahara group, which claims to have already returned close to Rs 20,000 crore to the bondholders of two Sahara firms directly.
This claim of direct refunds, which Sahara says were made before the Supreme Court order of 31 August 2012, is yet to be verified independently, sources said.
Even among the lists of investors submitted by Sahara to SEBI  after being directed by the apex court to do so, the regulator has come across numerous multiplicities and other anomalies, sources said.
There are numerous instances of one investor being named at hundreds of places, while there are also cases of multiple addresses for one single investor and hundreds of investors sharing the same address, sources said.
However, the largest number of anomalies suspected by SEBI involves untraceable addresses and other investor details.
Sources said the refunds are being made to the genuine investors whose credentials have been verified, although the number of such cases is so far very small when compared to initial claims of about 3 crore bondholders from whom two Sahara firms had raised over Rs 24,000 crore.

Thursday, May 9, 2013

Law of Returns to Scale:


Definition and Explanation:


The law of returns are often confused with the law of returns to scale. The law of returns operates in the short period. It explains the production behavior of the firm with one factor variable while other factors are kept constant. Whereas the law of returns to scale operates in the long period. It explains the production behavior of the firm with all variable factors.

There is no fixed factor of production in the long run. The law of returns to scale describes the relationship between variable inputs and output when all the inputs, or factors are increased in the same proportion. The law of returns to scale analysis the effects of scale on the level of output. Here we find out in what proportions the output changes when there is proportionate change in the quantities of all inputs. The answer to this question helps a firm to determine its scale or size in the long run.

It has been observed that when there is a proportionate change in the amounts of inputs, the behavior of output varies. The output may increase by a great proportion, by in the same proportion or in a smaller proportion to its inputs. This behavior of output with the increase in scale of operation is termed as increasing returns to scale, constant returns to scale and diminishing returns to scale. These three laws of returns to scale are now explained, in brief, under separate heads.

(1) Increasing Returns to Scale:


If the output of a firm increases more than in proportion to an equal percentage increase in all inputs, the production is said to exhibit increasing returns to scale.

For example, if the amount of inputs are doubled and the output increases by more than double, it is said to be an increasing returns returns to scale. When there is an increase in the scale of production, it leads to lower average cost per unit produced as the firm enjoys economies of scale.

(2) Constant Returns to Scale:


When all inputs are increased by a certain percentage, the output increases by the same percentage, the production function is said to exhibit constant returns to scale.

For example, if a firm doubles inputs, it doubles output. In case, it triples output. The constant scale of production has no effect on average cost per unit produced.

(3) Diminishing Returns to Scale:


The term 'diminishing' returns to scale refers to scale where output increases in a smaller proportion than the increase in all inputs.

For example, if a firm increases inputs by 100% but the output decreases by less than 100%, the firm is said to exhibit decreasing returns to scale. In case of decreasing returns to scale, the firm faces diseconomies of scale. The firm's scale of production leads to higher average cost per unit produced.

Graph/Diagram:


The three laws of returns to scale are now explained with the help of a graph below:


The figure 11.6 shows that when a firm uses one unit of labor and one unit of capital, point a, it produces 1 unit of quantity as is shown on the q = 1 isoquant. When the firm doubles its outputs by using 2 units of labor and 2 units of capital, it produces more than double from      q = 1 to q = 3.

So the production function has increasing returns to scale in this range. Another output from quantity 3 to quantity 6. At the last doubling point c to point d, the production function has decreasing returns to scale. The doubling of output from 4 units of input, causes output to increase from 6 to 8 units increases of two units only.        

Law of Costs:


Definition and Explanation:


Law of Costs is also known as laws of returns. As an industry is expanded with the increased investment of resources, the marginal cost (i.e., the amount which is added to the total cost when the output is increased by one unit) decreases in some cases, increases in others and in some, it remains the same. This tendency on the part of the marginal cost to fall, rise or to remain the same as output is expanded, is described in economics as the law of diminishing costs, the law of increasing costs, and the law of constant costs.

If we know the money cost of a unit of a factor invested in a particular industry, then the marginal cost can be derived easily dividing the money cost of a unit of factor by its marginal return.

The following table will make clear as to how the marginal cost decreases with the increases in marginal returns, rises with the fall in marginal returns and remains constant with the marginal return remaining the same. Let us suppose that the cost of each unit of factor applied is worth $100 only.

Schedule:


Units of  Factor
Total Return
(meters of Cloth)
Marginal Return (meters)
    Marginal Cost (in Dollars) (per meter)
1
10
10
10
2
30
20
5
3
55
25
4
4
88
33
3
5
138
50
2
6
238
100
1
7
338 
100
1
8
400
62
1
9
450
50
2
10
475
25
4
11
490
15
6

In the schedule given above, the taw of diminishing costs operates up to the 6th unit, between the 6th and 7th units, it is the law of constant costs which prevails and from 7th unit onward, it is the law of increasing costs which sets in.

Diagram/Graph:



In the Fig. (11.5) units of factors are measured along OX axis and marginal cost along OY axis. The  failing curve MN represents the operation of law of diminishing costs. NP shows constant costs, and PC indicates the increasing cost. MC is the marginal cost curve.     

Law of Constant Returns/Law of Constant Cost:


(Version of Classical and Neo Classical Economists):


Definition and Explanation:


The law of constant returns also called law of constant cost. It is said to operate when with the addition of successive units of one factor to fixed amount of other factors, there arises a proportionate increase in total output. The yield of equal return on the successive doses of inputs may occur for a very short period in the process of production. The law of constant return may prevail in those industries which represent a combination of manufacturing as well as extractive industries.

On the side of manufacturing industries, every increased investment of labor and capital may result in a more than proportionate increase in the total output. While on the other extractive side, an increase in investment may cause, in general, a less than proportionate increase in the amount of produce raised. If the tendency of the marginal return to increase is just balanced by the tendency of the marginal return to diminish yielding an equal return, we have the operation of the law of constant returns. In the words of Marshall:

"If the actions of the law of increasing and diminishing returns are balanced, we have the law of constant return".

In actual life, the law of constant returns can operate only if the following conditions are fulfilled:

(i) There should not be any increase in the prices of raw materials in the industry. This can only be possible if commodities are available in large supply.

(ii) The prices of various factors of production should remain the same. The .supply of various factors of production needed for a particular industry should be perfectly elastic.   

(iii) The productive services should not be fixed and indivisible.

If we study the above mentioned conditions carefully, we will easily conclude that in the actual world, it is not possible to find an industry which obeys the law of constant returns. The law of constant returns can operate for a very short period when the marginal return moves towards the optimum point and begins to decline. If the marginal return, at the optimum level remains the same with the increased application of inputs for a short while, then we have the operation of law of constant returns. The law is represented now in the form of a table and a curve.

Schedule:


Productive doses
          Total Return (meters of cloth)
          Marginal Return          (meters of cloth)
1
60
60
2
120
60
3
180
60 
4
240
60
5
300
60

In the table given above, the marginal return remains the same, i.e. 60 meters of cloth with the increased investment of inputs.

Diagram/Graph:



In figure (11.4) along OX are measured the productive resources and along OY is represented the marginal return. CR is the fine representing the law of constant returns. It is parallel to the base axis.

Law of Increasing Returns/Law of Diminishing Cost:


(Version of Classical and Neo Classical Economists):


Definition and Explanation:


The law of increasing returns is also called the law of diminishing costs. The law of increasing return states that:

"When more and more units of a variable factor is employed, while other factor remain fixed, there is an increase of production at a higher rate. The tendency of the marginal return to rise per unit of variable factors employed in fixed amounts of other factors by a firm is called the law of increasing return".

An increase of variable factor, holding constant the quantity of other factors, leads generally to improved organization. The output increases at a rate higher than the rate of increase in the employment of variable factor.

The increase in output faster than inputs continues so long as there is not deficiency of an essential factor in the process of production. As soon as there occurs shortage or a wrong or defective combination in productive process, the marginal product begins to decline. The law of diminishing return begins to operate. We can, therefore, say that there are no separate laws applicable to agriculture and to industries. It is only the law of variable proportions which applies to a!! the different industries. However, the duration of stages in each productive undertaking will vary. They will depend upon the availability of resources, their combination in right proportions, etc., etc.

Application of the Law of Increasing Returns in Industries:


There are certain manufacturing industries where the factors of production can be combined and substituted up to a certain limit, it is the law of increasing returns which operates. In the words of Prof. Chapman:

"The expansion of an industry in which there is no dearth of necessary agents of production tends to be accompanied, other things being equal, by increasing returns".

The increasing returns mainly arises from the fact that large scale production is able to secure certain economies of production, both internal and external. When an industry is expanded, it reaps advantages of division of labor, specialized machinery, commercial advantages, buying and selling wholesale, economies in overhead expenses, utilization of by products, use of extensive publicity and advertisement, availability of cheap credit, etc.. etc.

The law of increasing returns also operates so long as a factor consists of large indivisible units and the plant is producing below its capacity. In that case, every additional investment will result in the increase of marginal productivity and so in lowering the cost of production of the commodity produced. The increase in the marginal productivity continues till the plant begins to produce to its full capacity.
  

Assumptions:


The law rests upon the following assumptions:

(i) There is a scope in the improvement of technique of production.

(ii) At least one factor of production is assumed to be indivisible.

(iii) Some factors are supposed to be divisible. 

Example:

    
The law of increasing returns can also be explained with the help of a schedule and a curve.

Schedule:



Inputs
Total Returns (meters of cloth)
Marginal Returns
(meters of cloth)
1
100
100
2
250
150
3
450
   200  
4
  750  
300
5
1200
450
6
1850
650
7
2455
605
8
3045
600

In the above table it is dear that as the manufacturer goes on expanding his business by investing successive units of inputs, the marginal return goes on increasing up to the 6th unit and then it beings to decline steadily, Here, a question ca be asked as to why the law of diminishing returns has operated in an industry?

The answer is very simple. The marginal returns has diminished after the sixth unit because of the non-availability of a factor or factors of production or. the size of the business has become so large that it has become unwieldy to manage it, or the plant is producing to its full capacity and it is not possible further to reap the economies of large scale production, etc., etc.

Diagram/Graph:



In figure 11.3, along OX axis are measured the units of inputs applied and along OY axis the marginal return is represented. PF is the curve representing the law of increasing returns.

Compatibility of Diminishing and Increasing Returns:


It is often pointed out by the classical economists that the law of diminishing returns is exclusively confined to agriculture and other extractive industries, such as mining fisheries, etc. while manufacturing industries obey the law of increasing returns. In the words of Marshall:

"While the part which Nature plays in production shows a tendency to diminishing returns and the part which man plays shows a tendency to increasing returns".

The modern economists differ with this view and are of the opinion that the law of diminishing returns applies both to agriculture and the industry. The only difference is that in agriculture the law of diminishing returns begins to operate at an early stage and in an industry somewhere at a later stage.

The law of increasing returns is also named as the Law of Diminishing Cost. When the addition to output becomes larger, as the firm adds successive units of a variable input to some fixed inputs, the per unit cost begins to decline. The tendency of the cost per unit to decline with increased application of a variable factor to fixed factors is called the Law of Diminishing Cost.                 

Law of Diminishing Returns/Law of Increasing Cost:


(Version of Classical and Neo Classical Economists):


Definition:


The law of diminishing returns (also called the Law of Increasing Costs) is an important law of micro economics. The law of diminishing returns states that:

"If an increasing amounts of a variable factor are applied to a fixed quantity of other factors per unit of time, the increments in total output will first increase but beyond some point, it begins to decline".

Richard A. Bilas describes the law of diminishing returns in the following words:

"If the input of one resource to other resources are held constant, total product (output) will increase but beyond some point, the resulting output increases will become smaller and smaller".

The law of diminishing return can be studied from two points of view, (i) as it applies to agriculture and (ii) as it applies in the field of industry.
                  

(1) Operation of Law of Diminishing Returns in Agriculture: 

        

Traditional Point of View. The classical economists were of the opinion that the taw of diminishing returns applies only to agriculture and to some extractive industries, such as mining, fisheries urban land, etc. The law was first stated by a Scottish farmer as such. It is the practical experience of every farmer that if he wishes to raise a large quantity of food or other raw material requirements of the world from a particular piece of land, he cannot do so. He knows it fully that the producing capacity of the soil is limited and is subject to exhaustation.

As he applies more and more units of labor to a given piece of land, the total produce no doubt increases but it increases at a diminishing rate.

For example, if the number of labor is doubled, the total yield of his land will not be double. It will be less than double. If it becomes possible to increase the. yield in the very same ratio in which the units of labor are increased,  then the raw material requirements of the whole world can be met by intensive cultivation in a single flower-pot. As this is not possible, so a rational farmer increases the application of the units of labor on a piece of land up to a point which is most profitable to him. This is in brief, is the law of diminishing returns. Marshall has stated this law as such:

"As Increase in capital and labor applied to the cultivation of land causes in general a less than proportionate increase in the amount of the produce raised, unless it happens to coincide with the improvement in the act of agriculture".

Explanation and Example:


This law can be made more clear if we explain it with the help, of a schedule and a curve.

Schedule:  


Fixed Input
Inputs of Variable Resources
Total Produce TP (in tons)
Marginal product MP (in tons)
12 Acres
12 Acres
12 Acers
12 Acres
12 Acers
12 Acres
1 Labor
2 Labor
3 Labor
4 Labor
5 Labor
6 Labor
50
120
180
200
200
195
50
70
60
20
0
-5

In the schedule given above, a firm first cultivates 12 acres of land (Fixed input) by applying one unit of labor and produces 50 tons of wheat.. When it applies 2 units of labor, the total produce increases to 120 tons of wheat, here, the total output increased to more than double by doubling the units of labor. It is because the piece of land is under-cultivated. Had he applied two units of labor in the very beginning, the marginal return would have diminished by the application of second unit of labor.

In our schedules the rate of return is at its maximum when two units of labor are applied. When a third unit of labor is employed, the marginal return comes down to 60 tons of wheat With the application of 4th unit. the marginal return goes down to 20 tons of wheat and when 5th unit is applied it makes no addition to the total output. The sixth unit decreased it. This tendency of marginal returns to diminish as successive units of a variable resource (labor) are added to a fixed resource (land), is called the law of diminishing returns. The above schedule can be represented graphically as follows:

Diagram/Graph:



In Fig. (11.2) along OX are measured doses of labor applied to a piece of land and along OY, the marginal return. In the beginning the land was not adequately cultivated, so the additional product of the second unit increased more than of first. When 2 units of labor were applied, the total yield was the highest and so was the marginal return. When the number of workers is increased from 2 to 3 and more. the MP begins to decrease. As fifth unit of labor was applied, the marginal return fell down to zero and then it decreased to 5 tons.

Assumptions:


The table and the diagram is based on the following assumptions:

(i) The time is too short for a firm to change the quantity of fixed factors.

(ii) It is assumed that labor is the only variable factor. As output increases, there occurs no change in the factor prices.

(iii) All the units of the variable factor are equally efficient.

(iv) There are no changes in the techniques of production.

(2) Operation of the Law in the Field of Industry:


The modern economists are of the opinion that the law of diminishing returns is not exclusively confined to agricultural sector, but it has a much wider application. They are of the view that whenever the supply of any essential factor of production cannot be increased or substituted proportionately with the other sectors, the return per unit of variable factor begins to decline. The law of diminishing returns is therefore, also called the Law of Variable Proportions.

In agriculture, the law of diminishing returns sets in at an early stage because one very important factor, i.e., land is a constant factor there and it cannot be increased in right proportion with other variable factors, i.e., labor and capital. In industries, the various factors of production can be co-operated, up to a certain point. So the additional return per unit of labor and capital applied goes on increasing till there takes place a dearth of necessary agents of production. From this, we conclude that the law of diminishing return arises from disproportionate or defective combination of the various agents of production. Or we can any that when increasing amounts of a variable factor are applied to fixed quantities of other factors, the output per unit of the variable factor eventually decreases.

Mrs. John Robinson goes deeper into the causes of diminishing returns and says that:

"If all factors of production become perfect substitute for one another, then the law of diminishing returns will not operate at any stage".

For instance, if sugarcane runs short of demand and some other raw material takes its place as its perfect substitute, then the elasticity of substitution between sugarcane and the other raw material will be infinite. The price of sugarcane will not rise and so the law of diminishing returns will not operate.

The law of diminishing returns, therefore, in due to Imperfect substitutability of factors of production.
                          
The law of diminishing returns is also called as the Law of Increasing Cost. This is because of the fact that as one applies successive units of a variable factor to fixed factor, the marginal returns begin to diminish. With the cost of each variable factor remaining unchanged by assumptions and the marginal returns registering .decline, the cost per unit in general goes on increasing. This tendency of the cost per unit to rise as successive units of a variable factor are added to a given quantity of a fixed factor is called the law of Increasing Cost.
       

Importance:


The law of diminishing returns occupies an important place in economic theory. The British classical economists particularly Malthus, and Ricardo propounded various economic theories, on its basis. Malthus, the pessimist economist, has based his famous theory of Population on this law.

The Ricardian theory of rent is also based on the law of diminishing return. The classical economists considered the law as the inexorable law of nature.

Law of Diminishing Returns/Law of Increasing Cost:


(Version of Classical and Neo Classical Economists):


Definition:


The law of diminishing returns (also called the Law of Increasing Costs) is an important law of micro economics. The law of diminishing returns states that:

"If an increasing amounts of a variable factor are applied to a fixed quantity of other factors per unit of time, the increments in total output will first increase but beyond some point, it begins to decline".

Richard A. Bilas describes the law of diminishing returns in the following words:

"If the input of one resource to other resources are held constant, total product (output) will increase but beyond some point, the resulting output increases will become smaller and smaller".

The law of diminishing return can be studied from two points of view, (i) as it applies to agriculture and (ii) as it applies in the field of industry.
                  

(1) Operation of Law of Diminishing Returns in Agriculture: 

        

Traditional Point of View. The classical economists were of the opinion that the taw of diminishing returns applies only to agriculture and to some extractive industries, such as mining, fisheries urban land, etc. The law was first stated by a Scottish farmer as such. It is the practical experience of every farmer that if he wishes to raise a large quantity of food or other raw material requirements of the world from a particular piece of land, he cannot do so. He knows it fully that the producing capacity of the soil is limited and is subject to exhaustation.

As he applies more and more units of labor to a given piece of land, the total produce no doubt increases but it increases at a diminishing rate.

For example, if the number of labor is doubled, the total yield of his land will not be double. It will be less than double. If it becomes possible to increase the. yield in the very same ratio in which the units of labor are increased,  then the raw material requirements of the whole world can be met by intensive cultivation in a single flower-pot. As this is not possible, so a rational farmer increases the application of the units of labor on a piece of land up to a point which is most profitable to him. This is in brief, is the law of diminishing returns. Marshall has stated this law as such:

"As Increase in capital and labor applied to the cultivation of land causes in general a less than proportionate increase in the amount of the produce raised, unless it happens to coincide with the improvement in the act of agriculture".

Explanation and Example:


This law can be made more clear if we explain it with the help, of a schedule and a curve.

Schedule:  


Fixed Input
Inputs of Variable Resources
Total Produce TP (in tons)
Marginal product MP (in tons)
12 Acres
12 Acres
12 Acers
12 Acres
12 Acers
12 Acres
1 Labor
2 Labor
3 Labor
4 Labor
5 Labor
6 Labor
50
120
180
200
200
195
50
70
60
20
0
-5

In the schedule given above, a firm first cultivates 12 acres of land (Fixed input) by applying one unit of labor and produces 50 tons of wheat.. When it applies 2 units of labor, the total produce increases to 120 tons of wheat, here, the total output increased to more than double by doubling the units of labor. It is because the piece of land is under-cultivated. Had he applied two units of labor in the very beginning, the marginal return would have diminished by the application of second unit of labor.

In our schedules the rate of return is at its maximum when two units of labor are applied. When a third unit of labor is employed, the marginal return comes down to 60 tons of wheat With the application of 4th unit. the marginal return goes down to 20 tons of wheat and when 5th unit is applied it makes no addition to the total output. The sixth unit decreased it. This tendency of marginal returns to diminish as successive units of a variable resource (labor) are added to a fixed resource (land), is called the law of diminishing returns. The above schedule can be represented graphically as follows:

Diagram/Graph:



In Fig. (11.2) along OX are measured doses of labor applied to a piece of land and along OY, the marginal return. In the beginning the land was not adequately cultivated, so the additional product of the second unit increased more than of first. When 2 units of labor were applied, the total yield was the highest and so was the marginal return. When the number of workers is increased from 2 to 3 and more. the MP begins to decrease. As fifth unit of labor was applied, the marginal return fell down to zero and then it decreased to 5 tons.

Assumptions:


The table and the diagram is based on the following assumptions:

(i) The time is too short for a firm to change the quantity of fixed factors.

(ii) It is assumed that labor is the only variable factor. As output increases, there occurs no change in the factor prices.

(iii) All the units of the variable factor are equally efficient.

(iv) There are no changes in the techniques of production.

(2) Operation of the Law in the Field of Industry:


The modern economists are of the opinion that the law of diminishing returns is not exclusively confined to agricultural sector, but it has a much wider application. They are of the view that whenever the supply of any essential factor of production cannot be increased or substituted proportionately with the other sectors, the return per unit of variable factor begins to decline. The law of diminishing returns is therefore, also called the Law of Variable Proportions.

In agriculture, the law of diminishing returns sets in at an early stage because one very important factor, i.e., land is a constant factor there and it cannot be increased in right proportion with other variable factors, i.e., labor and capital. In industries, the various factors of production can be co-operated, up to a certain point. So the additional return per unit of labor and capital applied goes on increasing till there takes place a dearth of necessary agents of production. From this, we conclude that the law of diminishing return arises from disproportionate or defective combination of the various agents of production. Or we can any that when increasing amounts of a variable factor are applied to fixed quantities of other factors, the output per unit of the variable factor eventually decreases.

Mrs. John Robinson goes deeper into the causes of diminishing returns and says that:

"If all factors of production become perfect substitute for one another, then the law of diminishing returns will not operate at any stage".

For instance, if sugarcane runs short of demand and some other raw material takes its place as its perfect substitute, then the elasticity of substitution between sugarcane and the other raw material will be infinite. The price of sugarcane will not rise and so the law of diminishing returns will not operate.

The law of diminishing returns, therefore, in due to Imperfect substitutability of factors of production.
                          
The law of diminishing returns is also called as the Law of Increasing Cost. This is because of the fact that as one applies successive units of a variable factor to fixed factor, the marginal returns begin to diminish. With the cost of each variable factor remaining unchanged by assumptions and the marginal returns registering .decline, the cost per unit in general goes on increasing. This tendency of the cost per unit to rise as successive units of a variable factor are added to a given quantity of a fixed factor is called the law of Increasing Cost.
       

Importance:


The law of diminishing returns occupies an important place in economic theory. The British classical economists particularly Malthus, and Ricardo propounded various economic theories, on its basis. Malthus, the pessimist economist, has based his famous theory of Population on this law.

The Ricardian theory of rent is also based on the law of diminishing return. The classical economists considered the law as the inexorable law of nature.